Impact of Government Security on Pastoralist Pupils’ Participation in Regular and Mobile Primary Schools in Turkana County, Kenya

One of the major hindrances to education access in arid and semi-arid lands is lack of security. In recognition of this challenges, the Kenya government has tried to provide interventions through mobile schools and security services in places like Turkana County. Therefore, the research explored the effectiveness of security interventions on pastoralists’ children's participation in regular and mobile primary schooling in Turkana County, Kenya. The research used both descriptive survey and mixed methods. It relied on a sample of 75 school heads, 225 instructors, 375 learners, 85 parents, 3 education officers (1 from every sub-county), 1 County Director of Education and 1 County Commissioner. For data collation, International Journal of Learning and Development ISSN 2164-4063 2020, Vol. 10, No. 4 http://ijld.macrothink.org 51 the research used questionnaires, interview schedules and focus groups. Quantitative data was coded and entered into the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) program. To test for effectiveness of security intervention, regression (inferential statistics) was calculated. The analysed data was presented using tables. Qualitative data from interviews and focused groups was analysed and presented thematically. Hypotheses were analysed using regression analysis. Single and multiple regression were calculated to gauge the relative effect of the security interventions on pupils' participation in schooling. The results of the inquiry showed that insecurity around schools in Turkana County was rampant and some schools had suffered attacks. Incidences of insecurity had led to many pupils not attending school thus making many pastoralists pupils not participate in school in the County. Based on these findings, it is evident that insecurity also contributes to constant displacement which makes it difficult for children to pursue educational opportunities. Therefore, it was recommended that all schools should be provided with security officers, including the KPR comprised of the locals who understand the terrain and the people in the security.


Introduction
The role of education in equipping people with the ability to make informed choices about their lives and a positively contribute to society's progress cannot be overemphasized. Provision of education was ratified by the United Nations as a basic human right (UN-DHR, 1948). The right must be actualized for everyone. While there are endeavours seeking to achieve this reality, there are still many challenges. The nomadic groups, especially, have to overcome numerous challenges to realize this vision of universal access to quality education. Gorham (1978) contends that the provision of appropriate educational amenities to pastoral groups is a complex challenge, which is marked by the absence of understanding or engagement between the designers and providers, on one hand, and the users of those services, on the other hand.
The international commitment to the realization of Education For All (WCEFA, 1990) mandates an emphasis on those peoples who, for diverse reasons, have historically been marginalized from available educational services. Nomadic groups constitute a frequently segregated category, and their feature of constant migration poses many difficulties to the providers and implementers of educational programmes (Danaher, 2000). Of all migrant groups, the most segregated one is that of pastoral nomads.
The participation patterns of nomads in formal education indicate that their views and experience 'provide critical insights into the nature of education as a concept, and as a practice' (Dyer, 2006). The school-based education system does not sufficiently correspond to the mobile nature of pastoralists. In pastoral areas in particular, where productivity of the livelihood system requires an appropriate balance between people and ecology, education is an important route out of pastoralism (UNICEF, 2008).
Security is a key component issue in arid and semi-arid areas since most of these areas are prone to insecurity due to cattle rustling, attacks and violence in schools. Across much of the sub-Saharan African, violence in learning institutions has received extensive focus at the national levels, particularly when the government deploys repressive apparatus to quench learners' unrest (O'Malley, 2007); other works have explored sexual exploitation in learning institutions (Leach & Humphrey, 2007;Mirembe & Davies, 2001). In the Middle East, related studied have explored violence meted out on instructors and how conflicts can bar learners from pursuing education (O'Malley, 2007).
In conflict-ridden areas, O'Malley (2007) writes, "schools, places that should be safe for children, have increasingly become the prime target of attacks by armed parties". The above reviewed studies may not have precise relevance to Turkana because they were conducted outside Kenya. However, they help the present study in formulating important questions concerning the link between security and education. To what extent do security concerns impact pupils' access to regular and mobile schools in Turkana County? What interventions have been put in place by the Kenya government to mitigate these concerns and how effective are these interventions? The present study sought to answer these crucial questions by examining the effectiveness of government security on pastoralists children's participation in primary education.
According UNESCO (2014), in Gaza within two months of fighting 148 learning institutions were obliterated. Three invasions on UN-operated learning institutions killed forty-five, among them seventeen learners. In Nigeria, the Boko Haram triggered global outrage when it invaded a high school and abducted almost 300 female learners. In Syria, about 20% of learning institutions were rendered useless while some were appropriated for emergency housing for the displaced. This is a true demonstration that conflict affects schooling. Among the pastoralist communities, conflict arising from competition for pasture and water is eminent. This coupled by cattle rustling increases insecurity in pastoralist communities. This study endeavoured to establish the extent to which government provision of security affected pupils' participation in school. UNESCO's analysis above relate to the Middle East where the problem of social instability is more severe compared to Turkana County. Therefore, it was important to apply UNESCO's ideas to an ASAL region to ascertain the effectiveness of government security on pastoralists' pupils' participation in regular and mobile primary schools in Turkana County.
Insecurity in ASAL areas is rampant and a great hindrance to schooling. Obura (2008) observes that armed conflicts whether caused by political unrest or economic factors throughout the world constitute one of the greatest barriers to availing of proper training in Africa. In Africa, armed conflicts are associated with the acquisition and infiltration of illegal modern arms such as the AK-47 used for defence against or for forcefully acquiring cattle (cattle rustling), thereby, posing serious implications on the security, peace and wellbeing of the neighbouring pastoral communities. The countries that have experienced this include Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Southern Sudan, and Somalia just to mention a few. These conflicts have adversely affected access to education in Africa. Considering that Turkana County is regarded as an ASAL region in Kenya, the present study examined the impact of government security on pastoralists learners' participation in primary education.
According to United Nation Report (2011), conflict damages schools and thus limits educational opportunities in war torn areas, causing children and their families to abandon their residences and splitting of families. Fear and insecurity associated with conflicts keep children out of school especially the child with disability who needed constant attention and care from the parents. Jean (2006) suggested that the greatest challenge facing Sub-Saharan Africa as whole is full primary enrolment and completion rate as stipulated by MDGs and EFA goals. The insurgence of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) in northern Uganda and the counter attacks of Uganda government troops greatly affected access to education in African region. It has caused destruction of schools, displacement of people, abduction of girls and boys and turning them into sex slaves and children soldiers respectively. The terror meted on young boys and girls by the LRA militia had kept children out of school in the region (UNICEF, 2011). The above reviewed report shows the effects of insecurity on school attendance by pupils. However, UNICEF does not say exactly how the problem of insecurity can be overcome to allow pupils to attend schools. Therefore, it was logical for the present study to test out UNCEF's postulation by investigating the effectiveness of government security on pastoralists children's participation in primary education. Sifuna (2005) suggests the need to formulate strong policies, include segregated groups in planning and incorporate features of their existing traditional formation systems. This had been attempted by many states as a way to avail educational mitigations for marginalized and excluded areas. The study by extension sought to establish the effect of such government security intervention on pupil's participation in education among the pastoralist communities. Sifuna recommends the need to integrate prevailing traditional education institutions but he does not show how this integration may be achieved and how its effectiveness may be evaluated. Therefore, the present work was carried out to identify and assess the effectiveness of government security on pastoralists children's participation in primary education.

Statement of the Problem
The Kenya government and other development agencies have provided diverse interventions to avail formal training to the nomadic groups. Such education services are considered a way of harmonising and supporting these groups' social, political and economic inclusion. The state, therefore, launched Free Primary Education, school feeding and provision of security in primary schools to enhance participation of pastoralists children in education. However, the effectiveness of these measures in increasing learners' participation in education has not been examined. Such evaluation is needed since massive resources are invested in these interventions. Consequently, this study evaluated the efficiency of Kenya government's provision of security in enhancing pastoralist children's participation in primary schools in Turkana County, Kenya.

Materials and Methods
The research was undertaken in Kenya's northern County of Turkana. It deployed descriptive survey research approach. The target study group comprised 45250 learners, 907 instructors, 219 school heads, 9050 parents from 219 schools, 3 Sub-County Education Directors (each from the 3 sub-counties of Loima, Turkana West and Turkana Central) and 1 County Director of Education. To pick out respondents, the research utilised simple random and purposive sampling. Simple random sampling was deployed in picking schools, learners, instructors, school heads and parents in every sub-county while purposive sampling helped in selecting the Sub-County Education Directors, CDE and the County Commissioner.
Five class 7 learners, 3 teachers, one school head and one parent were picked in each primary school in every sub-county. In Turkana West, the study sampled 5 mobile and 20 regular primary schools, 5 and 20 heads from the mobile and regular schools, respectively, 15 instructors from mobile and 60 from regular schools, 5 parents from mobile and 20 from regular schools, and 25 pupils from mobile and 100 pupils from regular public primary schools, as well as 1 Assistant County Director of Education. In Loima, the study sampled of 5 mobile and 15 regular public schools, 5 heads from mobile and 15 from regular schools, 15 instructors from mobile and 45 from regular schools, 5 parents from mobile and 15 from regular schools, 25 learners from mobile and 75 from regular schools, and 1 Assistant CDE. In Turkana Central, the study selected 30 primary schools, consisting 18 regular and 12 mobile schools. From these, 12 heads were sampled from mobile schools and 18 were picked from regular schools. Moreover, 36 instructors from mobile schools and 54 from regular schools were picked. Of parents, 12 from mobile and 18 from regular schools were picked. Of pupils, 60 were picked from mobile and 90 from regular schools. Lastly, 1 Assistant CDE was picked from Turkana Central.
This study employed questionnaires to collect data from the pupils, teachers and head teachers. Interview schedules were used to collect data from the Sub-County Education Officers, the Director of Education and the County Commissioner. Lastly, focus group discussions was used to collect data from the parents. Quantitative data was coded and keyed in to the computer using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics used included frequencies, mean, percentage and standard deviation. In order to test the effectiveness of the government intervention, regression test an (inferential statistics) was used. The analysed data was presented using tables. The qualitative data form interview schedules and focused group discussions was organized into major themes as per the research objectives. The results were presented thematically using extensive description and direct quotations. Hypotheses were analysed using regression analysis. Regression analysis was used to determine the relative contribution of the government interventions to the pastoralist's pupils' participation in regular and mobile primary schools.

Results and Discussion
The study sought to establish the effect of government security on pastoralists' pupils' participation in primary school education in Turkana County. This aimed at establishing whether the government provided regular police patrols, had established enough police posts and police officers, and to gauge the effectiveness of these strategies in enhancing pastoralists' pupils' participation in primary schools in Turkana County.
A questionnaire was submitted to the pupils to respond to issues regarding the effectiveness of government security interventions in pastoralists' pupils' participation in public primary schools in Turkana County. First, the pupils were required to give an overview of the distribution of security agents in Turkana County. Their responses were as shown in Table 1 below. As presented in Table 1 above, 77.8 percent of pupils from regular and 49.2 percent from mobile schools got security from watchmen. This indicated that majority of the schools received security from the school watchmen. However, compared to regular schools, most, 44.2 percent, of mobile schools got security from KPR as only 20.2 percent of the regular schools got security from KPR. This implied that the government offered more security to mobile schools using KPR compared to regular school.
The same findings were replicated where more police officers who conducted regular patrols were deployed to mobile schools compared to the number deployed to regular schools. This was reported by 6.7 percent of learners in mobile schools and 2.0 percent pupils from regular schools. These findings showed that the government had provided security in form of regular police patrols and KPR officers to mostly mobile schools and some regular schools. On their part, most of the regular schools relied on security guards or watchmen for their security needs.
The above findings support those from a study by Obura (2008) who found that both regular police and the KPR were deployed in pastoralists' communities in order to offer security to schools. He further alluded that insecurity in ASAL areas is rampant and a great hindrance to schooling especially when the government does not offer security in such areas. Obura observed further that armed conflicts whether often sparked by political unrest or economic factors throughout the world constitute one of the greatest barriers to provision of quality education in Africa.
The pupils were also asked to indicate whether or not they had experienced insecurity in school or school environment. The results indicated that according to 66.7 percent of the pupils in regular schools, their schools had not experienced attacks while only 33.2 had experienced such attacks. This implied that there was enhanced security levels in most regular schools. For mobile schools, at least half, 50.8 percent, had experienced attacks while almost half of the schools said they had never experienced attacks. These figures showed that mobile schools were predisposed to increased insecurity compared to regular schools. The above findings showed that mobile schools are at more risk of being attacked compared to regular schools.
In order to address security matters in the area pupils were asked to indicate the kind of security agents that should be deployed in their schools to neutralize the bandits. From the data contained in Table 2, the responses of the pupils on the kind of security they would recommend for their schools showed that 49.2 percent of pupils from mobile institutions would recommend KPR as the most preferred form of security in their schools. A sitgnificant number, 43.3 percent, of the pupils from the mobile schools would also prefer regular police patrols for their schools. Within regular schools, however, the majority of the pupils, 76.3 percent, recommended KPR to provide security for their schools. The rest 18.2 percent and 5.5 percent preferred regular police patrols and watchmen, respectively. This is attributed to the fact that the KPR come from within the community and they understand the terrain of the area as well as all the security threat territories.
From the above findings, on overall, there seemed to be a great preference for both KPR and regular police patrols among mobile schools' pupils. This could be attributed to more attacks reported in mobile schools than regular schools. Conversely, most of the pupils in regular schools preferred KPR to regular police officers and watchmen. This could be explained by the fact that, in most cases, KPR are drawn from the local community, hence they understand the security challenges inherent in the communities within which these regular schools are regulated. Therefore, the pupils prefer these KPR agents because, perhaps, they can relate better with them.
Security is a key component issue in arid and semi-arid areas since most of these areas are prone to insecurity due to cattle rustling, attacks and violence in schools. These findings correspond to O'Malley (2007) who found that in many sub-Saharan African states violence in learning centres has been examined at the national level, particularly when the government uses its suppressive apparatus to quench learners' unrest.
The teachers were also asked to provide their comments regarding security matters in their schools. Their responses were as tabulated below. As depicted above, about all, 98.2 percent, of the regular schools instructors from had witnessed cases of insecurity in the area. Most of the mobile schools instructors also strongly affirmed, 97.9 percent, that their schools had witnessed cases of insecurity in the area. Relatedly, most of the teachers from the regular schools, 85.6 percent, and mobile schools, 87.5 percent, strongly affirmed that at times pupils missed school due to insecurity in the area. Therefore, the results of the study indicated that the teachers concurred with the responses from pupils that there was insecurity in the area and it was negatively affecting the pastoralists' pupils' participation in education.
The view that the government had built a police post near the teachers' school had mixed responses from the teachers. The sum of those who agreed, 39.6 percent, and strongly agreed, 12.6 percent, comprised the majority of teachers in regular schools. In the mobile schools, 17.7 percent, and agreed, 31.3 percent, summed up to 47 while those who strongly disagreed.
On the other hand, the teachers who disagreed and strongly disagreed with this statement in both school categories summed up to a reasonable number as well. Therefore, it was deduced that the government had built police posts near some of the schools while some other schools still felt unsafe.
The subsequent statement, that there were regular patrols by police and KPR in the area, also had mixed reactions from the teachers. For instance, 56.8 percent strongly agreed and 14.4 percent of the instructors from the regular schools affirmed this view. In the mobile schools, most of the teachers strongly agreed, 49.0 percent, and agreed, 13.5 percent. This was indicative of the fact that some of the schools received better government security services than other schools. It was encouraging, however, to note that the cumulative number of those who agreed far exceeded that of those who disagreed in both school categories, meaning that more teachers had witnessed police and NPR patrols.
The above scenario also explains why in the regular schools some of the teachers strongly agreed, 37.8 percent, and agreed, 34.2 percent, while others strongly disagreed, 15.3 percent, and disagreed, 12.6 percent, simultaneously that there was a general improvement in security around the area due to police post and patrols. In the mobile schools, to this statement, 34.4 percent of the teachers strongly agreed and 30.2 percent agreed. The rest of the teachers, namely 11.5 percent and 24.0 percent, disagreed and strongly disagreed, respectively. The fact that those who disagreed and strongly disagreed amounted to 36 teachers while those who agreed and strongly agreed were 94 was a good sign that the security situation had been fairly enhanced around the regular schools.
The research results on the influence of security on pupils' enrolment and participation in schools conformed to the findings of United Nation Report (2011). The UN reported that conflict damages schools and thus limits educational opportunities in war-torn areas, causing children and their families to flee their homes and separation of families. Fear and insecurity associated with conflicts keep children out of school especially the child with disability who needs constant attention and care from the parents. There is need to formulate strong laws and involve such groups in planning along with incorporating aspects of their existing traditional education systems (UN, 2011). This has been attempted by many states in a bid to avail educational programmes for disenfranchised groups.
The teachers from both mobile and regular schools were further probed to provide the most appropriate measure to ensure effective government security in their schools. Their feedback was as depicted in Table 4. Data contained in Table 4 above showed that the teachers from both regular schools, 40.5 percent, and mobile schools, 40.6 percent, respectively, supported the deployment of more police officers to their respective schools to provide security. These responses reiterated those from the regular school teachers who showed great support for both the police officers and KPR agents as the source of security for their schools.
Almost similar percentages, namely 45.9 percent and 42.7 percent, of teachers from regular and mobile schools, respectively, were in support of the strategy to recruit more KPR to offer security in their schools. Some teachers in both schools also supported the idea of using effective screening for all students daily. This statement was supported by 13.5 percent of teachers from regular schools and 15.6 percent from mobile schools. This showed that some schools felt that screening would help in identifying and preventing security threats in good time. Only one teacher in mobile schools thought the use of community policing (nyumba kumi initiative) would be best in providing security to schools in the area. The low number of teachers who recommended this measure could be attributed to the low popularity of the nyumba kumi initiative in itself.
From the above findings, it was evident that most teachers considered the presence of more police officers as the most reliable the measures of safety and security for their schools. The next best strategy recommended by the teachers was the recruitment of more KPR agents.
Comparing these findings with those of the head teachers, it would seem that both the teachers and the school heads believed that the police were the most preferred forms of security for schools. However, these findings differ from those of the pupils who preferred more KPR agents to police officers. Regarding the statements related to effectiveness of government offering security on pupil's participation in schools, the teachers and head teachers were asked to indicate the effectiveness of such measurers on pupils' participation.
They were asked to indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with such statement.
In order to establish whether or not the opinion of the head teachers and the teachers were the same or different across the category of schools, a cross tabulation analysis on security related statements and category of the school was done. The results were as presented in Table 5 below. As shown in the research results above, most of the heads of regular schools strongly affirmed, 83.7 percent that they had witnessed cases of insecurity in the area. In the mobile schools, 90.9 percent of them agreed with this view. This implied that there had been cases of insecurity experienced in majority of the schools, which was indicative of rampant insecurity around schools in the County. Similarly, the statement that sometimes pupils missed school due to insecurity in the area attracted majority of those who strongly agreed in regular schools, 79.6 percent and in mobile schools, 81.8 percent. These statistics showed that insecurity was rampant in the area and it was negatively affecting participation in education activities.
To make the matters worse, many of the principals in the regular schools, 36.8 percent, disagreed, and strongly disagreed, 32.7 percent, that the government had built a police post near their school. In the mobile schools, a similar number of head teachers, i.e. 36.4 percent in each case, strongly disagreed and disagreed with this statement. The fact that some affirmed and strongly affirmed this view is suggestive of the fact that the government had not done enough to provide security in the area by erecting police posts around volatile schools.
The same conclusion as above could be drawn regarding the head teachers' responses to the view that there were regular patrols by police and KPR in the area. The statement saw most of the school heads strongly disagreeing, 36.8 percent in regular and 40.9 percent in mobile schools. Nevertheless, it was encouraging to note that some of the head teachers from both school categories affirmed that there were regular patrols by police and KPR in the area. This implied that there was some level of police presence and patrol to provide security to schools in the area.
The above mixed responses were further reinforced by the head teachers' views regarding the statement that there was a general improvement insecurity of the area due to police post and patrols. To this statement, 36.8 percent and 14.3 percent heads of the regular schools strongly agreed and agreed, respectively. However, a significant number, 30.6 percent, and some, 18.4 percent, of the head teachers strongly disagreed and disagreed, respectively. Similarly, in the mobile schools, most strongly disagreed, 40.9 percent, and some disagreed, 18.2 percent. Meanwhile, a significant number of the school heads strongly agreed, 27.3 percent, and some agreed, 14.3 percent. As such, it was deduced that some schools were located in certain areas of the County that had experienced improvement in security due to police post and patrols.
The statement that learning in schools had improved in some areas due to improved security had many of the head teachers strongly agreeing, 26 percent from the regular institutions and 31.8 percent from the mobile institutions. In the regular schools, this statement also had an equal number of respondents, i.e. 26.5 percent, disagreeing while only 20.4 percent strongly disagreed. Similarly, 27.3 percent strongly agreed and 18.2 percent agreed with this statement in the mobile schools. These findings attested to the fact that learning in many schools had improved due to improved security. All these responses show that security had been provided to schools but the level of security provided was insufficient to guarantee uninterrupted participation in schooling.
The last statement stated that a policeman and KPR are required to secure this school. This statement had a majority of the head teachers, 71.4 percent in regular schools and 86.4 in mobile schools, agreeing strongly. Therefore, the findings revealed that the school heads trusted that having both regular police officers and KPR agents within their schools would better guarantee the security of their learning institutions.
Following the above results, the head teachers were asked to indicate the measures they considered effective for government provision of security to schools. Their feedback was as summarised in Table 6 below. The data in Table 6 revealed that most of the head teachers, 40.8 percent, from the regular institutions argued that the government should employ KPR in schools. A significant number, 36.4 percent, of the heads from mobile schools also subscribed to the idea of providing KPR in schools. Therefore, the use of KPR agents in school was supported by most of the head teachers from both school categories as the most reliable source of school security.
Another strategy proposed was for the government to increase patrols, which attracted support from 40.8 percent heads from regular institutions and 36.4 percent of heads from the mobile institutions. This strategy scored the same level of support as the first on the use of NPR. Therefore, it was deduced that a combination of NPR agents and increased regular patrols would help schools to feel secure in the area. Lastly, the suggestion that there should be effective security screening of all students had 18.4 percent regular school heads supporting and 27.3 percent mobile school heads agreeing with it.
In the FGDs, the parents were asked to give their views on the overall state of security in the area around where their children went to school. Some said security was fair in some schools.
Other parents felt that the security situation in the area around their schools was poor. Overall, the parents seemed to concur that the security situation around most mobile schools was poor and that the government needed to do more to secure all schools in the area. However, the County Commissioner security in Turkana County was generally satisfactory. The CDE seemed to also agree with the Commissioner. According to the Commissioner, the security component in Turkana County was divided into three. The first constituted internal security within Turkana County, which he described as being generally good despite any political affiliations. The second comprised the intercounty boundary security between Turkana and Pokot, Turkana and Baringo, and Turkana and Samburu. The focus of this segment of security was mainly on cattle rustling which was a popular cultural aspect between these communities. The Commissioner said security agents tried to reduce the scale of cattle rustling through continued community dialogue, anti-stock theft patrols and increased presence of National Police Reserve (NPR). According to the Commissioner, part three of the security processes in Turkana County entailed the international boundary between Turkana Kenya and its neighbouring communities in Uganda, Southern Sudan, and Ethiopia.
The CDE was asked to outline the government policy on security in public primary schools. This was in line with the recommendation by Sifuna (2005) that there was need to develop strong regulations and involve such communities during planning and incorporate aspects of their education systems. In his response, the CDE stated that the government was committed to providing security to all learning institutions and made extra efforts in guarding schools located in vulnerable regions of Kenya. In Turkana, the CDE said the government had established a framework of exploiting both the regular police officers, the national police reservists and other community-based security interventions to ensure security for schools. He said the County Government was tasked with deploying the security apparatus provided by the national government to the most vulnerable places in the County. In the policy, the County Government recognized the important role that local communities where schools are located play in securing schools, learners and educational property. From these responses, it was clear that the government was aware that places like Turkana required extra security to support educational, among other, engagements by the citizens. Moreover, the government had defined the requisite policy framework for providing security and integrating local systems within its security interventions.
The researcher also inquired from the parents if there had been any incidents of insecurity in and around their children's schools. All the parents agreed that there had been many cases of insecurity in the areas where their children went to school. The County Commissioner and the County Director of Education also affirmed that a few schools in the County had experienced attacks from inter-county and international border cattle rustling conflicts. The researcher probed the Commissioner further to state if there were teachers and learners who had been killed and or injured in those attacks. The Commissioner affirmed that some teachers and learners had lost lives along with some parents in such unfortunate situations.
The above findings concurred with the view by O'Malley (2007) that schools, which ought to be secure for learners, have increasingly become the key targets of invasions by armed groups. For instance, in Gaza, UNESCO (2014) found that two months of fighting over 140 schools had been obliterated. Three invasions on UN-operated learning institutions killed forty-five, among them seventeen learners. Similarly, in Nigeria, the Boko Haram attracted global outburst when it invaded a high school and abducted about 300 female learners (UNESCO, 2013). In the same present study established that cattle rustlers tended to target schools in their raids in Turkana County.
The parents were further probed to state how the insecurity incidents had affected their children's schooling activities. One parent who was adamant to speak said one of her children was killed. In a quick rejoinder, another parent said some teachers had also been killed, a statement to which many of the parents nodded. Another parent stated that in some school, the watchmen had been killed during the insecurity incidents. Further, two of the parents said that since their children's schools had been most affected by persistent insecurity, they had been forced to withdraw their children from school altogether. At the time of the study, these two parents were yet to find schools that they believed would be safe enough to allow for their children's uninterrupted learning. Confirming the parents' views, the County Commissioner had this to say: It interrupted some pupils from doing their examination especially in Lomelo and Kaapedo area. Whenever there is an invasion, people begin to be afraid to go to school. Parents tell their kids not to go to school because they are afraid they might be harmed. When people are killed so many children don't go to school. Teachers may also not come. In fact, in some cases, the rustlers destroy schools. That's why insecurity is a serious threat to schooling in this area and as a county we take the issue very seriously (Personal Communication, County Commissioner, 2017).
The Commissioner also stated that the insecurity incidences affected the learning of pupils "because parents had to take their children to safe areas to school there and some took them to take care of their animals that are being stolen in the process" (Personal Communication, County Commissioner, 2017). He further added that there had been an incident in which children were kidnapped, especially in the Ethiopian corridor. These views reinforced the County Director of Education's view that insecurity was the greatest threat to education access in Turkana County.
The above finding concurred with reports from the United Nation Report (2011) that conflict damages schools and thus limits educational opportunities in war torn areas, causing children and their families to abandon their residences and splitting of families. Fear and insecurity associated with conflicts keep children out of school especially the child with disability who needed constant attention and care from the parents.
During the FGDs, the parents were further asked to mention the mechanisms that they wished the state could put in place to guarantee security in schools where their children went and to allow them (parents) to take their children to those schools again. The parents in most FGDs suggested that the government should provide armed security dedicated to guarding each of the schools, whether regular or mobile schools. On the same issue, the CDE urged for enough policing in the area, especially around schools. The parents also suggested that the government should pay the NPR that are deployed to primary schools. Moreover, they proposed that there should be at least two NPR agents in every school.
The study hypothesized that that the government security intervention does not significantly affect pastoralists children's participation in regular and mobile primary schooling. A regression analysis was undertaken and the results were as summarized in Table 7 and Table  8.  Table 7 shows the adjusted R2 as .94, which implied that government provision of security accounted for 94 percent of the variance in pupil's participation in education. This implies that 94 percent of pupil participation is explained by government security in the area. The simple regression test between government security and pupils' participation in regular and mobile school is as presented in Table 8.  Table 8 showed that government provision of security had a statistically significant effect on pupils' participation in primary education in regular and mobile schools in Turkana County. This was attested to by a p value<0.05, which led to a rejection of the null hypothesis that "Government security does not significantly affect pastoralists' pupils' participation in regular and mobile primary schools in Turkana County". Therefore, it was concluded that government provision of security did significantly affect pastoralists' pupils' participation in regular and mobile primary schools in Turkana County.

Conclusion and Recommendations
On the issue of government security intervention, the government has established a framework of exploiting both the regular police officers, the national police reservists and other community-based security interventions to ensure security for schools. However, the security situation around most schools is poor and most schools are prone to external attacks. Most of the schools have experienced attacks. In some of these attacks, pupils, teachers and security personnel have been maimed or killed, and school property destroyed. These attacks almost always occur along cattle rustling, meaning that cattle rustling is the greatest security threat to schools. The government has not established police posts near most of the schools to act as a deterrence to crime. The few police posts and patrols available have not been effective in providing security in and around schools. A greater percentage of schools rely on watchmen or security guards to provide security in schools. However, on the most preferred security agents, pupils prefer KPRs. Insecurity is the single most serious threat to pastoralists' pupils' participation in school in Turkana County. When incidences of insecurity occur, most pupils miss school and parents prefer to withhold their children at home. Mobile schools are more prone to attacks than regular schools. Overall, government security intervention has a significant effect on pastoralists' pupils' participation in regular and mobile primary schools in Turkana County.
To enhance the effectiveness of government security interventions on pastoralists' pupils' participation in school in Turkana County, the government must first provide enough police officers around schools. It should also involve local communities in planning and implementing security measures for schools. The use of NPRs is supported greatly based on the idea that NPRs are more versed with local security challenges and are hence best placed to address these challenges. It is further suggested that NPRs should be provided with arms to help wade off security challenges. Additionally, the government should pay the NPR that are deployed to guard primary schools. Moreover, there is a need to sensitise the community to be vigilant and to work with the security people to help safeguard schools. Additionally, parents need to be helped to realize that cattle rustling activities are destructive to their children's education, as one way to reduce rustling activities. There should also be proper vetting of foreign students and learners before admission to schools. Lastly, the government should provide armed security dedicated to guarding each of the schools, whether regular or mobile schools.